Corruption and Education

The corruption phenomenon constitutes a serious and complex problem for modern democracies, because of its detection and prevention difficulty. Corruption distorts the normal way functioning of democratic institutions and causes serious harm to society in terms of:

Financial cost for the State

Distrust against public representatives among citizens. This social mistrust undermines a citizen’s participation and commitment with eradicating corruption; it can even lead to imitating the corrupt behavior and the legitimization of the corruption phenomenon.

Despite having lived truly critical moments throughout Spain’s history, especially when it comes to consolidating democracy in the country, democratic participation remains highly questionable (Ganuza Fernández, 2006; Colino and Pino, 2014), it has even come to be regarded as “low intensity democracy”; the corruption phenomenon has its share of responsibility in this situation. Therefore, not only is it necessary to develop snapshots of the country’s corruption panorama, it is also convenient to uncover the problem’s etiology.

There is a series of legislative texts in Spain, which have led to the emergence of the corruption phenomenon, especially of an urban nature (Romero, Fernández and Villoria, 2012); however, far from responding to a purely legal status, the genesis of corruption lies in a crisis of values and morality from our public representatives (Moreno, 2017), a sort of political alienation, where they have lost any conception of the social contract and the universal principles that enable us to live together in peace.

Spain does not have a built-in anti-corruption strategy for the different areas of the lives of its citizenry and political representatives; nor are there any channels for the citizen to participate in the fight against corruption. Added to this is the disregard for preventive mechanisms and the expansion of a punitive solution (criminal punishment) against the corruption phenomenon, which is exacerbating the problem (Villoria, 2015). There exist in the country mechanisms such as pardoning, which, coupled with the politicization of justice, do not contribute in creating and ensuring the functioning of a democratic state, but on the contrary, create the illusion that those who commit morally reprehensible acts do not pay for their crimes (Santana Vega, 2016).

There are several strategies designed for curbing corruption based on the joint action of the State’s judicial power, to even legislative proposals that are left in the air. Education in values is one of the paths to follow as an indirect strategy for fighting corruption based on higher education (Kravchuk, 2017; Martinez and Serrano, 2017; Sekirina Mukhametzhanova, 2016; and Hauk and Saez-Marti, 2002), therefore, we must ensure and be fully aware of the contents of knowledge, attitudes, and values disseminated in universities (Cheung and Chang, 2008).

There are currently many problems related to the unethical (or dishonest) behavior of many students that develop throughout their university life, such as plagiarism or copying tests; corruption seems to go beyond the purely political (Chapman and Lindner, 2016).

The development of values that guide our behavior, and in the end, our moral judgment, increases the capacity for abstraction and empathy in decision-making; thus, values must be taught in higher education (Robina Ramirez, 2017).

As has been pointed out, the origin of corruption stems from a crisis of values or moral sensitivity in political positions, which makes such individuals more likely to commit morally reprehensible practices when exercising their responsibilities. Education in values and in good democratic practices is not broad enough to strengthen universal principles that guarantee a healthy coexistence in society.

Corruption needs brakes, which can be the values and principles with which people count upon (Bautista, 2016). The educational sector must develop the approach of education in democratic values for preventing corruption (Marco and Nicasio, 2014); therefore, it is necessary to determine the citizenry’s moral sensitivity toward corruption.

Moral development in Social Science research

Research in the Social Sciences is and always has been a determining factor for those nations that seek to play a relevant and active role within the knowledge society; however, the research work and publications from higher institutions have not always been supported.

Since the middle of the last century, scientific research has begun to play an active role within modern societies, many of them for research and development, firmly believing that it is possible to improve societal coexistence through the scientific method.

Therefore, it is an obligation for those of us who are part of the higher education system to contribute to the knowledge society with rigorous, relevant and systematic research, with a practical-applicable scope to seek answers for social problems. It is necessary to have in-depth knowledge of the most innovative research methods that are best suited to the nature of the problems that are the study objectives for the Social Sciences. Thus, a broad understanding of the studied phenomena will be required, which will determine the methodology that the researchers will carry out.

One of the issues that has taken particular importance in recent years within the study of Education Sciences and Psychology has to do with moral development in young people, since higher education institutions have realized the relevance that this sector within the population holds for society’s regeneration (Lepage, 1995; Gozálvez, 2000; Rest, Narváez, Thoma and Bebeu, 2000; Barba, 2001; Barba, 2002).

American Psychologist Lawrence Kohlberg is one of the precursors and authors on moral development research, and has dedicated his life to studying it. Kohlberg’s research still continues to inspire the design of measuring tools related to development and moral judgment (Linde, 2009; Narváez and Gleason, 2007). These tools are intended to examine sensitivity or moral development, and include a series of moral dilemmas that individuals must overcome; scores are derived from their answers, which enable us to determine the level of their moral development (Linde, 2006 and 2007). Questionnaires developed throughout history, such as the Defining Issues Test (DIT) from Rest, the CC-P from Martorell or even more modern versions like the PROM (Carlo et. al., 2015), include these types of moral dilemmas.

The DIT is perhaps one of the most important tools used for measuring the moral development of individuals, with its validity beingdemonstrated on numerous occasions, (Rest, 1975; Schaefli, Rest, Thoma, 1985; Basinger and Gibbs, 1987; Rest, Thoma, Edwards, 1997). Adaptations of the DIT are usually developed to adapt its original structure to the needs of the study to be carried out. (Guerrero Martelo, 2004; Pérez-Olmos and Dussán-Buitrago, 2009). These adaptations require certain procedures during its preparation to ensure their validity, as well as subsequent follow-up tests that confirm it.

Lawrence Kohlberg’s Cognitive-Educational approach

To examine the moral sensitivity of individuals and, in general, their social-moral development (that is, the degree of internalizing certain values legitimized by a particular society) several approaches have been tested, however, the most accepted is the cognitive-evolutionary one. This is the approach adopted by authors such as Jean Piaget or Lawrence Kohlberg. The relationship between the cognitive and evolution is given as an active construction, in which the individual is related with the environment throughout their developing years, overcoming different levels of social-moral development (Piaget and Inhelder, 2015).

Different researches demonstrate that moral consistency is the result of the thought developments from subjects, which acquires complexity over the years, resulting in a more advanced “morality” (Kohlberg, 1992; Kohlberg, Power and Higgins, 2008).

Piaget was one of the first evolutionary psychologists in pointing out that development is the result of an adaptation to the environment undergone by an individual; adaptation comes along with the development of knowledge, making its understanding more complex each time. Piaget establishes a series of evolutionary stages where the individual will develop more complex and abstract ideas related to moral judgment (Piaget, 1984).

Lawrence Kohlberg, a disciple of Jean Piaget, developed the theory of conceptualized moral development, what we know today as “moral judgment”, defining a judgment of values about people and “duty” (Kohlberg, 1992; Revenga, 1992). Moral judgment is studied through numerous researches, presenting moral dilemmas where the subjects should issue a moral verdict.

Through his research, Kohlberg succeeds in identifying a pattern in the general population that relates moral judgment with age and maturity, concluding that throughout an individual’s life, moral judgment and, therefore, moral development becomes increasingly complex (Hersh, Reimer and Paolitto, 1984; Quintana, 1995).

Kohlberg describes three levels of moral development (Linde, 2010). The first level is the “pre-conventional”, in which the subjects do not have clear social rules nor authority. The behavior of individuals at this level remains governed by the direct consequences of their actions (in other words: “As a public servant, I will not accept gifts in exchange for favors because I could be sent to prison”). This is the classic position of the subjects that do not yet have 10 years of age, in which they do not understand why they are punished but understand that their actions carry reproach.

The next level is the “conventional” one, where individuals act in a dyadic manner under the quid pro quo paradigm, better understanding their roles within the social system, and what authority means. Kohlberg points out that the vast majority of the population find themselves in this position, which develops after ten years of age.

Lastly, Kohlberg describes the so-called “post-conventional level”, developed by very few people, usually after twenty-five years of age. At this level, individuals understand the rules of society and are able to go beyond, since their thinking is guided by values and principles built by themselves in their eagerness to achieve a better society for all.

Although it may seem surprising, the approach most commonly used for the study of moral development currently remains the one developed by Kohlberg, related to the moral judgment of individuals through the presentation of moral dilemmas. (Linde Navas, 2009; Narváez and Gleason, 2007)

At this point, it is not difficult to anticipate the relationship that can exist between what Kohlberg called “moral judgment” and the problem of corruption. Public representatives and political powers face moral dilemmas day after day, and it is their social-moral development, which will determine an answer one-way or the other.

The Defining Issues Test (DIT) from James Rest

As it has been previously mentioned, the DIT of Rest et al. (1974) is a questionnaire designed for measuring moral development. This tool is one of the most used and one of the most worked on, but it is necessary to explain the theoretical fundamental that it encompasses.

For Jean Piaget, moral development is nothing other than an adaptive mechanism of the individual toward the environment, modifying their attitudes and behavior based on a cognitive-evolutionary model; this is, the individual develops psychological structures as they grow. For Piaget, the morality phenomenon should not be decoupled from the cognitive (Piaget and Inhelder, 2015). Moral judgment represents a cognitive process that is also developed under the influence of the individual’s environment (Piaget, 1984; Hersh, Reimer and Paolito, 1984). Piaget developed a series of levels, assigning a certain degree of moral development to each of a person’s evolutionary stage.

Kohlberg, subsequently, developed Piaget’s idea, developing a more sophisticated model than his predecessor, specifying six positions and three stages of moral development. Kohlberg also specified the ages at which people go through these stages. According to Kohlberg, the individual’s interactions with their environment are the ones that will develop their moral reasoning, based on cognitive structures of parallel reasoning (Rest, 1979).

An individual facing a moral dilemma will act and take decisions related to their mental schemes (cognitive dimension); these schemes will help them prioritize the values that serve as the basis for their behavior.

One of the first tools created as a theoretical work of Lawrence Kohlberg, which was developed by himself: the Moral Judgment Interview, with Rest later designing the DIT.

The DIT was created in the early 1970s by Rest, Cooper, Coder, Masanz and Anderson (1974), and its main objective was to avoid Kohlberg’s long Moral Judgment Interview. The DIT is an alternative in questionnaire format that required less time and dedication. Despite not sharing the original structure, the DIT retains Kohlberg’s principles as referred to the methodology, with its development focused on moral dilemmas.

Interviewees should answer these moral dilemmas through a series of considerations. These considerations represent the stages established by Kohlberg, with each one answering to a different view of the subject regarding moral dilemma. In this way, those considerations with less developed content located in the lower levels of reasoning correspond to lower moral development.

Once the subjects point out the considerations in the DIT that most resemble their way of morally conceiving and prosecuting dilemmas, the statistical treatment of the data is carried out (most chosen considerations, means, medians, differences between the sociometric sample, among others). The P index will also be calculated, by which it will identify those students who chose considerations from level 5 and 6 of moral development to be the most relevant, which is the most moral complexity.

Over time, there have been numerous empirical and DIT validating studies that confirm the questionnaire’s ability to determine the degree of moral development through the scores obtained (Rest and Narvaez, 1994; Rest, Narvaez, Bebeau & Thoma, 1999; Thoma, 2006; Thoma, Bebeau, Dong, Liu, & Jaing, 2011).

The DIT has currently changed much in its more than thirty years of history, especially in the questionnaire’s score measuring system, having developed new indexes such as the N2; it is nonetheless considered one of the most indicative tests for measuring the kohlbergian scheme of an individual’s moral development, serving as a theoretical model and as a strategy for research on people’s moral judgment

Social-Moral and Corruption Development Questionnaire (SCDQ) (CDSC)

Within the course of the study on moral development, which is part of a broader research project, several of us researchers have decided to adapt Rest’s DIT and redirect it toward the corruption phenomenon, which is the objective of the project financed with public funds. Preparing the SCDQ is based on the DIT, replacing the six original dilemmas with three other new moral dilemmas related to corruption. The same DIT principles has also been use in other research, reducing the dilemmas to three of the six original ones, obtaining a high reliability rate.

The “SCDQ” is a tool that finds its foundation in the moral development theory (Kohlberg, 1984; Colby and Kohlberg, 2017). Kohlberg proposes 6 stages (and three levels) of development for an individual’s moral judgment: level 1 or pre-conventional (Instrumental/individualistic), level 2 or conventional (Interpersonal/Social System), and level 3 or post-conventional (Social Contract/Ethical Principles). It is necessary to clarify that the design of our questionnaire is geared toward college students from the Law Degree, adapting the content and difficulty of the moral dilemmas, since that has been the target population in the context of our study.

The “SCDQ” is composed of three moral dilemmas in the form of brief accounts related to corruption. Accompanying these dilemmas are three sections for assessing the subjects’ social-moral development:

The first section includes Yes/No/I Don’t Know answers, so that the subject responds to the dilemma’s central question, for example, Should Pete accept the commission? This section will help the subject define a clear position with respect to the action that should be taken by the moral dilemma protagonist.

The second section includes 6 moral considerations related to each of Kohlberg’s 6 social-moral development stages. Each one of the considerations is accompanied by a Likert scale, preferentially indicated for the analysis of the psychometric variables of attitude, value or personal guidance type (Lewis, 2003). The subject should point out on the Likert scale the importance of every consideration for adopting a particular decision; this is, what is the guiding criterion of their moral judgment.

In the third section, based on the assessment of each of the 6 considerations’ relevance, the subject must order the 4 estimated considerations as the most relevant considerations from highest to lowest priority. We can highlight two of the results obtained with regard to the “SCDQ”:

The first is obtained from the initial question of every dilemma, where students must decide how the moral dilemma’s protagonist should act, responding affirmatively (yes, they should undertake such a corrupt behavior) negatively (no, they should not do it), or, expressing their doubts (I don’t know).

The second result has to do with the statistical analysis of the chosen items as the most important when making a decision about the moral dilemma. A descriptive study will be carried out on the chosen items, and of the moral development levels to which they correspond. The P index will also be calculated by adding the individual scores from those items chosen as the more relevant for making a decision about the moral dilemma, and whether these correspond to conventional levels of post-conventional moral developments (Rest, 1979; Rest, 1986; Rest, Thoma, Narvaez and Bebeau, 1997).

Cronbach’s Alpha is proposed for use, so as to demonstrate the test’s reliability. We believe that if the value obtained exceeds 0.7, the test can be estimated as being reliable, otherwise the items or stories would have to be readjusted.

Regarding the interpretation of the results, we emphasize that an individual has a high development of social-moral judgment (a P score) when their thoughts/deductions are guided by universal values and principles (higher levels of moral development), where the rational individual recognizes the fact that people are ends in themselves and not means. These subjects act according to respect, dignity, justice and equality. This vision of moral development coincides with the concept of human dignity that Kant and Habermas developed.

The above results will measure the development of moral judgment related to corruption. This moral judgment is linked to attitudes and behaviors, ergo, with a possible eventual behavior of the analyzed subject with respect to corrupt situations.

In psychological terms, we want to explore the individual’s tacit knowledge (implicit, dependent on values-principles), causing them to assess a situation-assumption; having chosen those considerations more suited to their perception of the moral dilemma enables us to determine the level of morality with respect to the corruption phenomenon.

Conclusions

The problems that currently concern the world do not cease in having purely social origins, a crisis of values and poor moral judgments, lacking humanity and an understanding of the world. The individuals concerned with the corruption phenomenon must think and reflect on their own actions and that of others, always from a democratic point of view, in order to be able to understand and act according to reality. To eradicate the great problems plaguing societies, it is necessary to educate, investigate and carry out actions and policies aimed at promoting public ethics.

The objective for this work was to: 1) trace the history of the Defining Issues Test (DIT); 2) describe the contents of a questionnaire designed based on the DIT to research the moral development of students from the Law Degree in relation to the political corruption phenomenon, and 3) provide guidance on the development and/or adaptation of this type of tool.

One of the causes for corruption is the poor moral development of public representatives, therefore it is necessary to analyze its relationship with the moral development of individuals, as well as carry out a pedagogy focused on the cognitive-evolutionary development established by Kohlberg; perhaps in this way, we may prevent some of the social ills of post-modernity. The DIT is currently one of the most powerful tests for analyzing the kohlbergian scheme of moral development. Over the last decades, this test has been an essential tool for researching people’s moral judgment. Empirical studies that employ the DIT have demonstrated its validity as a tool for analyzing the degree of moral development in subjects.

At present, the DIT has changed a great deal in its three decades of history; its different versions enable researchers to analyze individuals’ moral development in a simple way as of Kohlberg’s perspective. The research teams must ensure the measurement systems’ design and development to ensure the validity and reliability for measuring the analysis objective construct (moral development). We must reflect on the topic for designing and redesigning tools, such as the DIT, in function with the needs for the moral development research; in this way, we may debug said tools.

Within the context of the Social Sciences research methodology, there are numerous tools and techniques for collecting information available to the research teams. These tools enable us to obtain information on social phenomena from different perspectives; however, they are not being used due to their complexity.

We cannot limit ourselves to carrying out long questionnaires or boring tests. It is necessary to create and produce, be original and create precedence not only at the bottom of a research, but in its way as well. We should advocate for innovation in research methods within the Social Sciences context.

The fundamental objective of education must be to achieve the full training of all the players that make up society so as to ensure peace and coexistence, promoting those values derived from freedom, equality and solidarity. It is necessary to form free and critical thinking that reflects on these values and principles as a basis. According to Marina (2006), educating basically consists in socializing, in other words, developing the capacities, assimilating the values, acquiring the skills not only to live, but for good living in a given society. The way that society conducts itself will depend on the policies of education in values that generations to come will invest on. Education will be a determining factor in the success or failure of the purported, expected, and highly appointed quality of democracy. We need to regenerate the social fabric by educating citizens in civic values; combating the corruption phenomenon in this way. Research focusing on the diagnosis of the ills that most affect our societies should be established from universities, to try to respond to questions about the aetiology, the prevalence and incidence of such evils. Universities should promote the analysis of the corruption phenomenon from a multidisciplinary approach, as well as propose strategies for ensuring comprehensive solutions that respond to a problem of great social significance.

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