Receipt date: 18/05/2024 / Revision date: 15/06/2024 / Acceptance date: 17/07/2024

Introduction

Under the influence of the social movements that have instigated various demands, education in Chile has emerged as one of the decisive elements shaping some of the most transcendental policies in recent times. As a result, several issues associated with this area have gained relevance in the public agenda, although with varying degrees of priority in their implementation. Two notable examples are teacher training and educational inclusion.

The quality of the teaching staff is seen as a determining factor in achieving excellence in education. To this end, significant efforts have been deployed to improve both the training and working conditions of teachers (Centro de Estudios MINEDUC, 2017). This approach includes improvements in training programs and working conditions, the latter aspect being, until recently, undervalued, which has led to an undervaluation of the teacher as a social agent (Cabezas & Claro, 2011; Hernández et al., 2017). In this context, it is projected that, in the medium to long term, the figure of the teacher will be consolidated as one of the fundamental pillars for establishing the foundations of a lasting educational system. In addition to various campaigns aimed at promoting the social valuation of the teaching profession, efforts have been made to equate this profession with others of great importance for collective development, such as medicine, engineering and law (Elige Educar, 2021). In turn, the enactment of Law No. 20903 (MINEDUC, 2016) has marked a significant milestone in the achievement of these objectives, establishing the teaching career as a mechanism that recognizes the performance of teachers, both professionally and economically, over factors such as seniority in the system, which previously determined the status of the teacher in his or her educational community. It is important to point out that these measures directly affect public schools (both municipal and subsidized), since they are the ones that are governed by this evaluation system. In this regard, the possible effects that this measure may have on the number of teachers, considering, for example, the increase in the requirements established by law to access a teaching program, as well as the transformation of the perception of the teacher as a professional, continue to be the subject of analysis.

Inclusion, as an issue of sociocultural scope, is positioned as a relevant aspect to improve the national education system (MINEDUC, 2017), especially in the context of the current debates on migration (Poblete & Galaz, 2017) and gender identity (Rojas Fabris et al., 2019). However, there is one aspect of inclusive education that has historically received little attention in the conversations of groups charged with defining issues of interest in the field: the education of students with specific educational support needs (SEN) (López et al., 2014; Tenorio, 2011). A close examination of this group of students reveals, both locally and internationally (UNESCO, 2004), a lack of attention to gifted students within the spectrum of those with SEN, especially when considering their presence in the regular classroom. This leads to a limitation in the supply of learning opportunities appropriate to their needs and abilities, as they tend to find their space mainly in extracurricular programs outside of school (Reid & Boettger, 2015; UNESCO, 2004). As a result, the achievements of gifted students are often confined to a local dimension, rooted as personal experiences or within the context of extracurricular programs, without a direct transfer to the school, either to the group of students with whom they share classes on a daily basis or to the school community at large. This evidences a possible loss of the capabilities that talented students possess and that could contribute to the well-being of the learning community, an aspect as crucial as their own personal development, since their talents are expected to become a social benefit (Renzulli, 2012).

In view of these issues, the need arises to analyze the intersection between educational inclusion, from the perspective of meeting the needs of gifted students, and teacher training, with the aim of contributing to the improvement of the national education system. In this context, the incorporation of a significant number of talented students to the field of pedagogy is considered as an alternative to address the SEN present in this student group. In effect, we seek to explore the concepts of potential talented teacher, understood as that student (both at school and university level, but with emphasis on the first type) who shows superior skills both at the disciplinary and pedagogical level, exhibiting a potential to become a quality teacher, and talented teacher, referring to a teacher who shows certain characteristics in his professional practice (related to his mastery of the discipline, his critical and analytical vision of teaching, his investigative nature in his role as an educator, his ability to attend to diversity, especially talented students, among others) that distinguish him from other teachers, in a similar way to how a talented student could be identified within the entire group of students.

Method

To address the topic in question, a review of the literature was carried out, defining search criteria based on key concepts, exploring certain repositories and selecting those works that addressed the issues to be considered. This made it possible to analyze the national (Chile) and international references, with the aim of verifying differences and/or similarities that would provide useful information for the conclusions.

From the point of view of key concepts, we considered those that could potentially refer to the notion to be explored. In this sense, searches were conducted under the concepts gifted teacher, talented teacher, pedagogical talent, profesor talentoso and talento pedagógico. It is important to mention that the concept of gifted used in Spanish can be divided into the concepts gifted and talented, which means that the Anglo-Saxon literature potentially offers a greater number of results related to the topic under investigation, and with a greater degree of precision in terms of what their respective definitions seek to reflect. On the other hand, the terms excellent teacher, expert teacher, effective teacher, outstanding teacher or expert teacher were not considered at this stage, since they allude to another dimension of teacher analysis (discussed in later sections). Mainly, we worked with Web of Science, Scopus, ERIC and Dialnet; additionally, complementary searches were carried out in university libraries, specific journals and tools such as Google Scholar or Researchgate, in order to find any work that had not been registered in the main databases. The selection of publications was essentially based on the criterion that the works should refer to teachers who possess certain distinctive characteristics, and not to teachers who are related in a certain way to the field of gifted education. Thus, and once the review was restricted to those papers that contained the specific terms, cross-checks were made to verify repetitions between databases, the age of the research was evaluated, abstracts of the papers were reviewed and the central theme treated in them was analyzed.

To organize and present the results of the search performed, the PRISMA protocol has been used as a reference, which provides clear guidelines regarding the collection, selection and use of specialized literature on a certain topic to be investigated, in the context of systematic reviews. Although the PRISMA protocol has been used mainly in the health field, in recent years its application has been extended to other fields, particularly education, due to the quality and rigor it offers to those who apply it. Its structure is applicable to long and short systematic reviews, especially in those cases in which it is necessary to refine the results obtained to give greater precision to the final sample.

Results

Figure 1 shows the results obtained from the search associated with the key concepts already suggested. No other type of filter was used (year, type of writing, area of study, peer reviewed, etc), since it was estimated that the sample of papers was sufficiently reduced without its application.

Figure 1
Stages and figures of the search

General analysis

As summarized in Catalán (2023), in the field of gifted education there is a significant absence of works that are linked to the concept of gifted teacher that is expected to be developed. Some of the most common themes are: how gifted students and their respective teachers relate (Clark & Shore, 2004), along with the preparation of such a teaching group (Cabrera, 2011; Clark & Shore, 2004; National Association for Gifted Children, 2013); how the implementation of teaching is conditioned by the presence of gifted students and their teachers (Camci-Erdogan, 2015; Tourón, 2020; Vidergor & Eilam, 2012); the approach to gifted education from the viewpoint of educational policies (Reid & Boettger, 2015; Tourón & Freeman, 2018); the vision held by educators, members of the governing body, students and adults responsible for gifted education (Bégin & Gagné, 1994; Hosseinkhanzadeh et al., 2013).

In addition, a considerable body of research has been identified that focuses on the figure of the excellent/expert/effective teacher, terms close to the concept of the outstanding/expert teacher, which are usually linked to standardized teacher evaluations. However, these investigations, despite their relevance, do not establish a direct connection with the anticipated identification of skills, an essential element for the construction of the concept that is sought to be developed (Catalán, 2023).

Specific analysis (national)

In formulating the concept, Fuentes et al. (2013) pose a pending task, highlighting its importance for improving teaching careers in relation to the students who study them. In this sense, they propose that it is crucial to identify certain qualities in outstanding teachers among their colleagues, in order to use this information to identify high school students with teaching potential early on. However, although the introduction of the key concept generates expectations in the authors' proposal, they focus on stressing the importance of the educational system having highly competent teachers, suggesting that entry should be directed towards those students who demonstrate, from the outset, the best skills for this field. In addition, they present some general definitions of talent (which tend to focus on academic talent), and then outline a possible definition of what a talented teachermight be. According to Fuentes et al. (2013), some characteristics that could be associated with the figure of the gifted teacher include: a need to communicate and collaborate with various members of the educational community; abilities to establish bonds and empathize with them, as well as to perceive and express emotions, especially sensitive to the emotional processes of their students; an interest in transmitting knowledge effectively, reflective thinking, observational skills and awareness of the context and social aspects; a high degree of self-control, self-knowledge and introspection; and a performance that evidences pedagogical leadership skills and promotes the realization of educational projects.

Following a similar line, Hermosilla & Lara (2017) give an account of the search for a definition of categories associated with the conformation of the notion of pedagogical talent (teaching orientation, emotional stability, social skills and higher cognitive skills). However, it is possible to detect at least two points for improvement. First, what was done was to corroborate what the literature proposes with respect to such categories and their different descriptors through the application of questionnaires, which included sentences that the respondents were to value in terms of what should be observed in a talented teacher; however, such sentences are written in a format in which most of the respondents would naturally attribute a high positive valuation to them, which makes them lose value as discriminatory elements to generate judgments and conclusions. Second, the conceptions of talented teacher and outstanding/experienced teacher tend to be mixed, since some characteristics that a teacher presents more clearly when he/she has practiced for a considerable time are valued, so that the focus of the research is not particularly on the potential exhibited by a prospective teacher.

Pizarro et al. (2018) essentially show the development of measurement instruments by the institution, with the purpose of capturing what they call educational talent in their teachers in training, which would allow characterizing the population of students in their programs and making decisions based on their needs. Together with the analysis of the correlations between different variables, the predictive capacity of the instrument or the attribution of weighted weights to each factor, it is possible to rescue from this work precisely those variables or factors that support the structure of the battery of instruments applied by the institution, since they account for some characteristics/skills/attitudes that a talented teacher might have (although the study does not state with certainty how much and/or how each of the variables contribute to the conception of the concept): creativity, educational talent, metacognition, teamwork/communication, empathy, multiple intelligences, innovation, leadership, pedagogical interests/motivation/vocation (Pizarro et al., 2018).

In turn, Castro & Jaramillo (2018) approach what Hermosilla & Lara (2017) stated, giving an account of the country's situation in terms of initial teacher training and positioning in a preponderant place the need to attract the most qualified students to pedagogy careers. In this case, the size of the sample in which the corresponding instruments were applied, the validation process of such instruments and that there is a greater dispersion in the assessments made to the different characteristics of a teacher are particularly positively valued, in contrast to what has already been consigned about Hermosilla & Lara (2017), understanding that this allows identifying different levels of relevance of the presence of one or other qualities in a teacher. In terms of the specific proposal of characteristics that would allow for the definition of a talented teacher, the authors suggest two broad areas, which are divided into five dimensions (pedagogical vocation: social commitment, motivations for teaching and professional role; pedagogical talent: cognitive skills and social skills). In turn, each of the dimensions was associated with certain adjectives, which act as descriptors or characterizers of these dimensions as a result of the application of the instruments that were part of the study. It is important to note that the study sought to distinguish and differentiate vocation from talent as observable phenomena, which corresponds to one of the hypotheses that the literature review sought to demonstrate.

In the field of more recent research, the work of Walker-Janzen et al. (2020), who examine Chile's situation regarding access to teaching careers and associated reforms, highlighting the importance of more effectively managing the entry of students with teaching talent. Although this study is limited to a specific context, it yields significant results: teachers in charge of selecting future teachers tend to favor those with excellent academic performance, a remarkable capacity for social interaction and participation, as well as leadership skills with respect to their peers. In addition, they seek to foster the integration of these qualities in students, suggesting that the conception of talent in education requires the harmonious presence of various factors.

Cruz et al. (2020) seek to establish certain relationships or common minimums between the different descriptions of talent, through adapted models based on the classic proposals of Csikszentmihalyi (1988), Gagné (1991), Renzulli (1986) and Sternberg (1985), which inevitably puts the focus on the relationships that have existed between the ideas of academic talent, intelligence, high exceptionality and giftedness; as a result of the crossing between the aforementioned adapted models, it is concluded that the following aspects surround the notion of talented teacher: professional training/disciplinary knowledge, motivation, training process and personal development, creative thinking, practical intelligence and motivating professional environments (Cruz et al., 2020).

Finally, Hormazabal et al. (2020) explore the proliferation of programs sponsored by Chilean universities designed to attract students in their final years of secondary education who show an interest in teaching. These programs employ a variety of criteria to select, develop and incorporate participants into the university environment (Araya & Wong, 2013; Hernández et al., 2020). This phenomenon is relatively new in Chile and has gained momentum with the enactment of Law No. 20903, which offers an alternative access route to teaching careers. Given their novelty, a thorough documentation and in-depth analysis of the implementation of these programs is still lacking, especially with regard to their impact on the identification and proliferation of potential talented teachers. However, the article points out that, in general terms, these programs are aimed at identifying outstanding skills in areas such as writing and mathematics, as well as valuing the pedagogical vocation and the teacher's commitment to his or her role in society (Hormazabal et al., 2020).

Specific analysis (international)

Among the works of Marion Porath, an expert in the field of high abilities, it is possible to find at least two that give certain indications of what could be understood as a gifted teacher, since she tries to give a description focused on the teacher as a subject that may present certain exceptional characteristics. Along these lines, Towers & Porath (2001) present some reflections based on what they call gifted teaching, a concept that, according to the authors, refers to that type of teaching that inspires and connects with the minds and hearts of students, reaffirming the idea that, as opposed to what is sought by those studies focused on the student as exceptional, it seems relevant to analyze characteristics, actions, skills and/or strategies of the teacher that would lead him/her to be classified as gifted.

Regarding the ideas that surround the notion of gifted teacher, the authors bring up interpersonal competence or ability as one of the components of the definition of intelligence, and position it as an integral part of what configures the teacher with high capacities, complementing it with the notion of wise teacher (profesor sabio) that the authors rescue from Arlin (1999), which would indicate that a gifted teacher could show the following characteristics:

• broad objective knowledge about teaching and the importance of the discipline he/she teaches; broad theoretical knowledge about teaching strategies and practical knowledge about how and when to use such strategies;
• sense of the context in which teaching is carried out;
• awareness of the various variables associated with other teachers and students;
• uncertainty about the effects that teaching decisions may have, along with a willingness to take risks and try different ways of actively involving students in the learning process.

Finally, the authors conclude that the triad between intelligence, personality and what results from the interaction between both (for example, creativity and social intelligence are mentioned) is fundamental to conceive the so-called wise teacher, age not being a determining variable and only experience being a determining variable when it appears interacting with intelligence and personality. In addition, the importance of permanently incorporating students in the learning process is reaffirmed, as well as the importance of betting on innovative strategies, a solid disciplinary knowledge and a deep and perspective reading of what the curriculum states.

In turn, Porath (2009) highlights the figure of the expert teacher as a starting point to think about the possible qualities that a teacher with high capacities possesses, complementing what has already been exposed in relation to the figure of the wise teacher, and incorporating aspects such as intrapersonal intelligence (teachers' knowledge of themselves, projection of personal reflections in their professional practice), the consideration and management of different contextual variables (school climate, educational policies, expectations of the educational community, etc.), the search for excellence in their own practice and in the development of students, or the appropriation of their environment as a space in which they deploy their maximum potential.

One of the main references and sources of inspiration has been found in Mikulic et al. (2017), both for the ideas he puts forward regarding the conception of the talented teacher, as well as for the strategy he follows to obtain information, analyze it and generate important conclusions. In effect, the authors seek to characterize what they call gifted teachers, assuming their existence (as it occurs in the different fields of human development) and suggesting the need to find a way to detect such teachers. The notion is circumscribed to some of the models already cited (Gagné, 1991; Renzulli, 1986; Sternberg, 1985), takes as evidence the effect that teachers can have on the learning process of students and particularly on the results of such process, is placed at the center of the discussion between the importance of excellence and equity (a debate that usually revolves around the positioning of talent as social capital), and is linked to a conception that appears as a sort of corollary of the subject in question: the manifestation of the characteristics of a talented teacher in adulthood, through different levels (competence, expertise and eminence).

This last point is particularly interesting, since it could have an impact on the search for a differentiation between the concepts of potential talented teacher and talented teacher, understanding that the characteristics of the latter are observable once he/she has already become a teacher as such. Specifically, the research used as a target group student teachers from different years, practicing elementary school teachers and academics linked to teaching careers, whose assessments from a battery of indicators generated as a result that a series of adjectives and actions are valued as descriptors of the figure of the talented teacher, grouped into two major domains: cognitive (responsible, encouraging, willing to learn, disciplined, encourages thinking, competent, creative, detail-oriented, etc) and socio-affective (attentive, communicative, cooperative, reliable, fair, benevolent, accessible, concerned, honest, etc). In turn, within a range of seven areas in which, according to the authors, it is possible to distribute the different actions and teaching tasks (family and community, evaluation, environment, professional development, teaching strategies, inclusion and interactions), and which would eventually account for the behavior of a talented teacher, the areas of inclusion and interactions are the ones that were most highly valued by the evaluation groups, together with that of teaching strategies by practicing teachers/academics. In particular, these results showed no significant differences between the groups consulted, which indicates a considerable level of agreement.

In general, the notion of the talented teacher that the authors attempt to illustrate is similar to that proposed in Arlin (1999), Porath (2009) and Towers & Porath (2001), evoking the figure of an expert who possesses a degree of full knowledge of all the aspects that converge in the teaching practice, along with some particularities that are not common in teachers (the valuation of the reflection of their own practice with an investigative tinge, or the need to achieve excellence, among others).

In recent research, it is worth highlighting Fedorov et al. (2019), who emphasize the importance of mechanisms to identify, select and support those students who show certain special abilities linked to the pedagogical field, which would allow strengthening the educational system in terms of its quality; in turn, the authors consider relevant the debate between the two possible conceptions of talent: the idea of gifted, focused on the potential and capabilities prior to exposure to a certain context, and that of talented, focused on the observable, virtuous and professional deployment of certain basic tools. By virtue of these scopes, the authors consider that the presence of a talented teacher is related both to previous antecedents (at school and initial training level) and to performances that are manifested in a professional environment (from initial training to classroom teaching practice). It is important to mention that this study promotes the link between early detection and the consolidation of talent through a systematic method, involving different levels and actors of the educational system.

On the other hand, Orgoványi-Gajdos & Kovács (2020) are close to the idea that we are trying to define, since although it is based on the notions of excellent teacher or effective teacher (associated to the outstanding/expert teacher under the criteria of a standardized teacher evaluation) the authors allude to outstanding intrinsic characteristics and/or developed with experience, such as: supports student self-development, evaluates the learning process and reflects on it, has professional autonomy, is efficient in communication, possesses knowledge of his/her discipline, among the most outstanding. These can be qualified as talents and are distributed according to their focus (student-centered, pedagogical, professional or educational). One aspect that makes this research particularly interesting is the potential difference in the manifestation of those special characteristics in gifted teachers according to the type of students they work with. In this case, the sample was divided into three groups, made up of teachers who teach high-risk students and gifted students, plus the addition of a group of supervising teachers, and the results showed similarities between the group of supervising teachers and teachers of high-risk students in various aspects, with teachers working with gifted students being seen as different (which according to the authors is explained, in part, by the homogeneous character that a group of gifted students tends to have in comparison to others). This result is relevant, since it opens the door to the incorporation of the context as a determining variable when constructing a definition of a talented teacher, whether due to the conditions provided by school socioeconomic contexts, disciplines of study, educational levels, cultural capital, type of student, among others; on the other hand, it invites us to think about the difference between the characteristics of a talented teacher that make him/her a talented teacher and the characteristics of a talented teacher that make him/her particular and different from others, but that do not necessarily contribute to being considered talented. For example, and to mention a few adjectives within the data obtained, the research showed that teachers working with gifted students rated themselves as more distant, conservative, serious, critical, rational and rigid than their peers in the other two groups, which does not necessarily imply that such characteristics lead them to maximize the deployment of their talent.

Discussion and conclusions

A thorough review of the literature has been instrumental in identifying common guidelines that contribute to the definition of a gifted teacher. This understanding becomes crucial when addressing specific problems, such as the difficulties in incorporating teachers into the national education system and the need to effectively meet the educational demands of talented students. Next, we will delve into various aspects related to the definition of a talented teacher, highlighting relevant ideas that emerged from the bibliographic analysis.

Outstanding teacher and national and international competitions

In the national context, the outstanding teacher emerges as an outstanding figure in the field of pedagogy, a classification derived from the current categorization in terms of teaching performance, according to the Framework for Good Teaching (MINEDUC, 2021). The exploration of national and international reference frameworks reveals similarities, especially with regard to the maximum expected of a teacher, aligning with the conception of a talented teacher. The analysis of proposals that work in terms of competencies is presented as an interesting avenue, consistent with contemporary trends in education.

Differentiation between gifted and talented

The search for a precise definition of a gifted teacher demands a clear distinction between the notions of gifted and talented (Fedorov et al., 2019). The idea of gifted, associated with innate potentials, may not be completely applicable to the gifted teacher. The latter term seems to develop with time and specific experiences, although certain abilities or characteristics could be considered intrinsic, innate or exceptional from the beginning (Orgoványi-Gajdos & Kovács, 2020). The notion of talented, understood as the concrete manifestation of worked and enhanced skills, fits better with the construction of the definition of a talented teacher. The crucial question thus arises about the manifestation and detection of talent in adulthood (Mikulic et al., 2017).

Value-added and exceeding evaluation standards

A distinguishing characteristic of the talented teacher lies in his or her ability to add value, surpassing conventional teaching evaluation standards. Although the initial definition could be aligned with that of an outstanding/expert teacher according to standardized assessments, the distinction between the two is expected to fall on an added value associated with the manifestation or exceptional display of certain distinctive aspects (Orgoványi-Gajdos & Kovács, 2020). This added value transcends the requirements of a traditional teacher evaluation and is evident in unusual contexts, such as working with gifted students, participation in teacher training and leadership within educational communities.

Role of intelligence

Intelligence, understood both in its interpersonal (Porath, 2009; Towers & Porath, 2001) and intellectual dimensions, plays a fundamental role in defining the talented teacher. The discussion centers on whether the talented teacher is inherently more intelligent, according to the relevant conceptions of intelligence. The question arises as to whether intelligence is a determining factor in the identification and final definition of the talented teacher.

Vocation as a determining factor

In the Chilean national context, vocation emerges as a distinctive trait of the talented teacher, contrasting with international research. The influence of vocation in the classification of teachers as talented should be carefully evaluated, since this trait could be particular to Chilean teachers, affecting the general conception of teaching talent. This emphasis on vocation could divert attention from what, according to most research, appears to be fundamental in the conception of the gifted teacher.

Key capabilities identified

The review of the literature has allowed us to identify key capabilities that make up the figure of the talented teacher. These capabilities are divided into different areas: social (related to social interactions), emotional (linked to emotional deployment), cognitive (related to intellectual development), didactic/pedagogical (specific to interactions in teaching and learning processes), disciplinary (specific to the knowledge in which teaching is imparted) and professional (transversal and observable in various work contexts). These capabilities, in turn, can be grouped into dimensions that define a diverse vision of the identity of the talented teacher (Catalán & Jurado, 2023), which is aligned with a modern and comprehensive perspective of the presence of talent, without circumscribing or limiting it to a particular field.

In sum, the literature review provides a solid basis for the conceptualization of the gifted teacher. The distinction between gifted and talented, the added value that goes beyond assessment standards, the role of intelligence, the influence of vocation and the identification of key capabilities are fundamental aspects that contribute to a comprehensive understanding of this figure.

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