MLS Psychology Research
Vol 1 No 1 (2018)
ISSN: 2605-5295
Depression in men and its relation to the traditional male ideology and alexithymia
Published Oct 31, 2018
Abstract
The aim of this research was to see if there is a direct relationship between the levels of depression in men and the presence of a traditional male ideology. The demands of the traditional male role today continue to suppress what is related to emotional expression, stressing the importance of being strong and not needing help. That is why such mental illnesses as depression are affected by traditional masculinity and a high cognitive rigidity expressed in beliefs about gender roles. The presence of alexithymia and its relation to traditional male ideology and depression has also been analysed. To this end, the Male Role Standards Scale, the Beck Depression Inventory (BDI-II) and the Toronto Alexithymia Scale (TAS-20) were administered to 50 men over the age of 25 in the general population. This is a correlational study in which the baseline hypothesis was that the levels of depression and the score in the TAS-20 correlated directly with the scores obtained in the Male Role Standards Scale. The results showed that there is a relationship between a factor of traditional male ideology and depression, mediated by alexithymia.
Keywords:
Depression, alexithymia, gender roles, male depression, male health
Article Details
How to Cite
López Ruiz, M., & Presmanes Roqueñi, L. (2018). Depression in men and its relation to the traditional male ideology and alexithymia. MLS Psychology Research, 1(1). https://doi.org/10.33000/mlspr.v1i1.113
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References
Arancibia, M. & Behar, R. (2015). Alexitimia y depresión: evidencia, controversias e implicancias. Revista Chilena de Neuro-Psiquiatría, 53(1), 24-34. doi:10.4067/S0717-92272015000100004
Addis, M. E. (2011). Invisible Men. Men's Inner Lives and the Consequences of Silence, New Yrok: Times Books.
Alonso-Fernandez, F. (2011). La alexitimia y su trascendencia clínica y social. Salud Mental, 34(6), 481-490. Retrieved from http://www.medigraphic.com/pdfs/salmen/sam-2011/sam116b.pdf
APA. (2013). Manual diagnóstico y estadístico de los trastornos mentales (DSM-5), 5ª Ed. Arlington, VA: Editorial Médica Panamericana.
Bagby , R. M., Taylor, G. J. & Parker, J. D. (1994). The Twenty-Item Toronto Alexithymia Scale-II. Convergent, Discfriminant, and Concurrent Validity. Journal of Psychosomatic Research, 38(1), 33-40. Retrieved from https://www.researchgate.net/publication/15071941_The_Twenty-Item_Toronto_Alexithymia_Scale-II_Convergent_Discriminant_and_Concurrent_Validity
Bastidas-Bilbao, H. (2014). Enfermedades médicas y depresión en el adulto mayor: características comunes y relación etiológica. Revista de Psicología, 32(2), 192-218. Retrieved from http://www.scielo.org.pe/scielo.php?script=sci_arttext&pid=S0254-92472014000200001
Behar, R. & Arancibia, M. (2015). Alexitimia y depresión: evidencia, controversias e implicancias. Revista Chilena Neuro-Psiquiatra, 53(1), 24-34. doi:10.4067/S0717-92272015000100004
Bromet, E., Andrade, L. H., Hwang, I., Sampson, N. A., Alonso, J., De Girolamo, G., Kessler, R. C. (2011). Cross-national epidemiology of DSM-IV major depressive episode. BMC Medicine, 9(90), 1-16. doi:10.1186/1741-7015-9-90
Cardila Fernández, F., Martos Martínez, Á., Barragán Martín, A. B., Pérez-Fuentes, M., Molero Jurado, M. & Gázquez Linares, J. J. (2015). Prevalencia de la depresión en España: Análisis de los últimos 15 años. European Journal of Investigation in Health, Psychology and Education, 5(2), 267-279. doi:10.1989/ejihpe.v5i2.118
Carranza, Y. P. (2014). Niveles de alexitimia según severidad de sintomatología. Lima, Perú
de Graaf, R., ten Have, M., van Gool, C. & van Dorssealaer, S. (2012). Prevalence of mental disorders and trends from 1996 to 2009. Results from the Netherlands Mental Health Survey and Incidence Study-2. Social Psychiatry and psychiatric Epidemiology, 47(2), 203-213. doi:10.1007%2Fs00127-010-0334-8
Eastabrook, J. M., Lanteigne, D. M. & Hollenstein, T. (2013). Decoupling between physiological, self-reported, and expressed emotional responses in alexithymia. Personality and Individual Differences, 55, 978-982. doi:10.1016/j.paid.2013.08.001
Fisch, R. Z. (1989). Alexithymia, masked depression and loss in an holocaust survivor. Br J Psychiatry, 154, 708-710. doi:10.1192/bjp.154.5.708
Günther, V., Matthes, A., Kersting, A. & Egloff, B. (2016). Alexithymia and the implicit self-concept of extraversion in women. Personality and Individual Differences, 21-25. doi:10.1016/j.paid.2015.08.034
Guvensel, K., Dixon, A., Chang, C. & Dew, B. (2018). The Relationship Among Gender Role Conflict, Normative Male Alexithymia, Men's Friendship Discords With Other Men and Phychological Well Being. Journal of Men's Studies, 56-76. doi:10.1177/1060826517719543
Holmes, M. (2015). Men’s Emotions: Heteromasculinity, Emotional Reflexivity and Intimate Relationships. Men and Maculinities, 176-192. doi:10.1177/1097184X14557494
Hunt, M., Auriemma , J. & Cashaw, A. C. (2003). Self-Report bias and underreporting of depression on the BDI-II. Journal of Personality Assessement, 80(1), 26-30. doi: 10.1207/S15327752JPA8001_10
Iglesias-García, C., Sáiz, P. A., Burón, P., Sánchez-Lasheras, F., Jiménez-Treviño, L., Fernández-Artamendi, S., & Bobes, J. (2017). Suicidio, desempleo y recesión económica en España. Revista de Psiquiatría y Salud Mental, 10(2), 70-77. doi: 10.1016/j.rpsm.2016.04.005
Kovess-Masfety, V., Boyd, A., Van de Velde, S., De Graaf, R., Vilagut, G., Haro, J. M. & Alonso, J. (2014). Are there gender differences in service use for mental disorders across countries in the European Union? results from the EU-World Mental Health survey. Journal of Epidemiol Community Health, 68, 649-656. doi:10.1136/jech-2013-202962
Levant, R. J., Ronald, F., Levant, Hall, R. J., Williams, C. M. & Hasan, N. T. (2009). Gender Differences in Alexithymia. Psychology of Men and Masculinity, 10(3), 190-203. doi:10.1037/a0015652
Li, S., Zhang, B., Guo, Y. & Zhang, J. (2015). The association between alexithymia as assessed by the 20-item Toronto Alexithymia Scale and depression: A meta-analysis. Psychiatry Research, 227(1), 1-9. doi:10.1016/j.psychres.2015.02.006
Lindsey, L. (2015). Gender Roles, a Sociological Perspective. New York: Routledge.
Lopez-Ibor, A. (1972). Los equivalentes depresivos, Sevilla, España: Editorial Paz Montalvo
Mac an Ghaill, M. & Haywood, C. (2012). Understanding Boys’: Thinking Through Boys, Masculinity and Suicide. Social Science & Medicine, 74, 482-489. doi:10.1016/j.socscimed.2010.07.036
Marcia Lees, F. & Johnson Black, N. (2017). Gender Antropology, Long Grove, Illinois: Waveland Press.
Mathers, C. D. & Loncar, D. (2006). Projections od global mortality and burden of disease from 2002 to 2030. PLoS Medicine, 3, 2011-2030. doi:10.1371/journal.pmed.0030442
Matínez, M., Paterna, C., López, J.-A. & Velandrino, A. (2010). Análisis psicométrico y dimensional de la Escala de Normas de Rol Masculino en población española. Male Norms Role Scale (MRNS). Estudios de psicología: Studies in Psychology, 31(2), 159-172. doi:/10.1174/021093910804952287
Matud, M. & Aguilera, L. (2009). Roles sexuales y salud mental en una muestra de la población general española. Salud Mental; 32, 53-58. Retrieved from http://www.redalyc.org/articulo.oa?id=58212260007
Mitjans, M. & Arias, B. (2012). La genética de la depresión: ¿qué información aportan las nuevas aproximaciones metodológicas? Actas Españolas de Psiquiatría, 40(2), 70-83. Retrieved from https://www.actaspsiquiatria.es/repositorio/14/76/ESP/14-76-ESP-70-83-680417.pdf
Moral de la Rubia, J. (2005). La Alexitimia en relación con el Sexo y el Rol de Género. Revista Internacional de Ciencias Sociales y Humanidades SOCIOTAM, 25(1), 147-166. Retrieved from http://www.redalyc.org/pdf/654/65415106.pdf
Moral de la Rubia, J. & Ramos-Basurto, S. (2015). Alexitimia como predictor directo y mediado por la depresión en la violencia. Revista Costarricense de Psicología, 34(1), 15-40. Retrieved from http://www.scielo.sa.cr/pdf/rcp/v34n1/art02v34n1.pdf
Moral de la Rubia, J. & Retamales Rojas, R. (2014). Estudio de validación de la escala de alexitimia de toronto (TAS-20) en muestra española. Psiquiatría, 1. Retrieved from https://psiquiatria.com/sin-categoria/estudio-de-validacion-de-la-escala-de-alexitimia-de-toronto-tas-20-en-muestra-espanola/
Moya Morales, M. (1984). Los Roles Sexuales. Gazeta de Antropología, 3, 21-28. Retrieved from https://www.ugr.es/~pwlac/G03_08Miguel_Moya_Morales.html
Muñiz, J. & Fernández-Hermida, J. R. (2010). La opinión de los psicólogos españoles sobre el uso de los test. Papeles del Psicólogo, 31(1), 108-121. Retrieved from http://www.papelesdelpsicologo.es/pdf/1801.pdf
Nekouei, Z. K., Doost, H. N., Yousefy, A., Manshaee, G. & Sadeghei, M. (2014). The relationship of Alexithymia with anxiety-depression-stress, quality of life, and social support in Coronary Heart Disease (A psychological model). Journal of Education and Health Promotion, 68(3), Retrieved from https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4113983
OMS (2018). Depresión. Retrieved from http://www.who.int/es/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/depression
Páez, D., Martínez-Sánchez, F., Velasco, C., Mayordomo, S., Fernández, I. & Blanco, A. (1999). Validez psicométrica de la Escala de Alexitimia de Toronto (TAS-20): un estudio transcultural. Boletín de Psicología, 63, 55-76. Retrieved from https://www.ehu.eus/documents/1463215/1504264/Paezetal99em2.pdf
Rice, S. M., Fallon, B. J., Aucote, H. M., & Möller-Leimkühler, A. M. (2013). Development and preliminary validation of the male depression risk scale: Furthering the assessment of depression in men. Journal of Affective Disorders, 151(3), 950-958. doi:10.1016/j.jad.2013.08.013
Rosado Millán, M., Gracía García, F., Alfeo Álvarez, J. & Rodríguez Rosado, J. (2015). El Suicidio Masculino: Una Cuestión de Género. Prisma Social, 13, 433-492. Retrieved from https://www.researchgate.net/publication/273120744/download
Sanz, J., Perdigón, A. L. & Vázquez, C. (2003). Adaptación española del Inventario para la Depresión de Beck-II (BDI-II): 2. Propiedades psicométricas en población general. Clínica y Salud, 14(3), 249-280. Retrieved from http://www.redalyc.org/articulo.oa?id=180617972001
Schuch, J. J., Roest, A. M., Nolen, W. A., Pennix, B. W. & De Jonge, P. (2014). Gender differences in major depressive disorder: Results from the Netherlands study of depression and anxiety. Journal of Affective Disorders, 156, 156-163. doi:10.1016/j.jad.2013.12.011.
Tartaglini, M. F., Dillon, C., Hermida, P. D., Feldberg, C., Somale, V. & Stefani, D. (2017). prevalence of Geriatric Depression and Alexithymia and their association with sociodemographic characteristics in a sample of elderly persons living in Buenos Aires, Argentina. Revista Brasileira de Geriatria e Gerontologia, 20(4), 516-524. doi:10.1590/1981-22562017020.160126
Taylor, G. J., Parker, J. D. & James, C. B. (1990). A preliminary investigation of alexithymia in men with psychoactive substance dependence. Am J Psychiatry, 147-149. doi:10.1176/ajp.147.9.1228
Thomsom, E. H. & Pleck, J. H. (1986). The structure of males role norms. American Behavioral Scientist, 29, 531-593. doi:10.1177/000276486029005003
Tondo, L. (2014). Brief History of Suicide in Western Cultures. En S. H. Koslow, P. Ruiz & C. B. Nemeroff, A Concise Guide to Understanding Suicide: Epidemiology, Pathophysiology and Prevention (págs. 3-12). Cambridge: Cambridge University.
Vázquez Machado, A. (2013). Depresión. Diferencias de género. Multimed, 17(3), 193-217. Retrieved from http://www.revmultimed.sld.cu/index.php/mtm/article/view/319/1315
Vindel, A. C., Salguero, J. M., Wood, C. M., Dongil, E. & Latorre, J. M. (2012). La Depresión en Atención Primaria: Prevalencia, Diagnóstico y Tratamiento. Papeles del Psicólogo, 33(1), 2-11. Retrieved from http://www.redalyc.org/articulo.oa?id=77823404001
Williams, J., Stephenson, D. & Keating, F. (2014). A Tapestry of Oppression. The British Psychological Society, 27(6), 406-409. Retrieved from https://thepsychologist.bps.org.uk/volume-27/edition-6/tapestry-oppression
Wittchen, H. U., Jacobi, F., Rehm, J., Gustavsson, A., Svensson, M., Jönsson, B. & Steinhausen, H. -C. (2011). The size and burden of mental disorders and other disorders of the brain in Europpe 2010. European Neuropsychopharmacology, 21, 655-679. doi:10.1016/j.euroneuro.2011.07.018
Addis, M. E. (2011). Invisible Men. Men's Inner Lives and the Consequences of Silence, New Yrok: Times Books.
Alonso-Fernandez, F. (2011). La alexitimia y su trascendencia clínica y social. Salud Mental, 34(6), 481-490. Retrieved from http://www.medigraphic.com/pdfs/salmen/sam-2011/sam116b.pdf
APA. (2013). Manual diagnóstico y estadístico de los trastornos mentales (DSM-5), 5ª Ed. Arlington, VA: Editorial Médica Panamericana.
Bagby , R. M., Taylor, G. J. & Parker, J. D. (1994). The Twenty-Item Toronto Alexithymia Scale-II. Convergent, Discfriminant, and Concurrent Validity. Journal of Psychosomatic Research, 38(1), 33-40. Retrieved from https://www.researchgate.net/publication/15071941_The_Twenty-Item_Toronto_Alexithymia_Scale-II_Convergent_Discriminant_and_Concurrent_Validity
Bastidas-Bilbao, H. (2014). Enfermedades médicas y depresión en el adulto mayor: características comunes y relación etiológica. Revista de Psicología, 32(2), 192-218. Retrieved from http://www.scielo.org.pe/scielo.php?script=sci_arttext&pid=S0254-92472014000200001
Behar, R. & Arancibia, M. (2015). Alexitimia y depresión: evidencia, controversias e implicancias. Revista Chilena Neuro-Psiquiatra, 53(1), 24-34. doi:10.4067/S0717-92272015000100004
Bromet, E., Andrade, L. H., Hwang, I., Sampson, N. A., Alonso, J., De Girolamo, G., Kessler, R. C. (2011). Cross-national epidemiology of DSM-IV major depressive episode. BMC Medicine, 9(90), 1-16. doi:10.1186/1741-7015-9-90
Cardila Fernández, F., Martos Martínez, Á., Barragán Martín, A. B., Pérez-Fuentes, M., Molero Jurado, M. & Gázquez Linares, J. J. (2015). Prevalencia de la depresión en España: Análisis de los últimos 15 años. European Journal of Investigation in Health, Psychology and Education, 5(2), 267-279. doi:10.1989/ejihpe.v5i2.118
Carranza, Y. P. (2014). Niveles de alexitimia según severidad de sintomatología. Lima, Perú
de Graaf, R., ten Have, M., van Gool, C. & van Dorssealaer, S. (2012). Prevalence of mental disorders and trends from 1996 to 2009. Results from the Netherlands Mental Health Survey and Incidence Study-2. Social Psychiatry and psychiatric Epidemiology, 47(2), 203-213. doi:10.1007%2Fs00127-010-0334-8
Eastabrook, J. M., Lanteigne, D. M. & Hollenstein, T. (2013). Decoupling between physiological, self-reported, and expressed emotional responses in alexithymia. Personality and Individual Differences, 55, 978-982. doi:10.1016/j.paid.2013.08.001
Fisch, R. Z. (1989). Alexithymia, masked depression and loss in an holocaust survivor. Br J Psychiatry, 154, 708-710. doi:10.1192/bjp.154.5.708
Günther, V., Matthes, A., Kersting, A. & Egloff, B. (2016). Alexithymia and the implicit self-concept of extraversion in women. Personality and Individual Differences, 21-25. doi:10.1016/j.paid.2015.08.034
Guvensel, K., Dixon, A., Chang, C. & Dew, B. (2018). The Relationship Among Gender Role Conflict, Normative Male Alexithymia, Men's Friendship Discords With Other Men and Phychological Well Being. Journal of Men's Studies, 56-76. doi:10.1177/1060826517719543
Holmes, M. (2015). Men’s Emotions: Heteromasculinity, Emotional Reflexivity and Intimate Relationships. Men and Maculinities, 176-192. doi:10.1177/1097184X14557494
Hunt, M., Auriemma , J. & Cashaw, A. C. (2003). Self-Report bias and underreporting of depression on the BDI-II. Journal of Personality Assessement, 80(1), 26-30. doi: 10.1207/S15327752JPA8001_10
Iglesias-García, C., Sáiz, P. A., Burón, P., Sánchez-Lasheras, F., Jiménez-Treviño, L., Fernández-Artamendi, S., & Bobes, J. (2017). Suicidio, desempleo y recesión económica en España. Revista de Psiquiatría y Salud Mental, 10(2), 70-77. doi: 10.1016/j.rpsm.2016.04.005
Kovess-Masfety, V., Boyd, A., Van de Velde, S., De Graaf, R., Vilagut, G., Haro, J. M. & Alonso, J. (2014). Are there gender differences in service use for mental disorders across countries in the European Union? results from the EU-World Mental Health survey. Journal of Epidemiol Community Health, 68, 649-656. doi:10.1136/jech-2013-202962
Levant, R. J., Ronald, F., Levant, Hall, R. J., Williams, C. M. & Hasan, N. T. (2009). Gender Differences in Alexithymia. Psychology of Men and Masculinity, 10(3), 190-203. doi:10.1037/a0015652
Li, S., Zhang, B., Guo, Y. & Zhang, J. (2015). The association between alexithymia as assessed by the 20-item Toronto Alexithymia Scale and depression: A meta-analysis. Psychiatry Research, 227(1), 1-9. doi:10.1016/j.psychres.2015.02.006
Lindsey, L. (2015). Gender Roles, a Sociological Perspective. New York: Routledge.
Lopez-Ibor, A. (1972). Los equivalentes depresivos, Sevilla, España: Editorial Paz Montalvo
Mac an Ghaill, M. & Haywood, C. (2012). Understanding Boys’: Thinking Through Boys, Masculinity and Suicide. Social Science & Medicine, 74, 482-489. doi:10.1016/j.socscimed.2010.07.036
Marcia Lees, F. & Johnson Black, N. (2017). Gender Antropology, Long Grove, Illinois: Waveland Press.
Mathers, C. D. & Loncar, D. (2006). Projections od global mortality and burden of disease from 2002 to 2030. PLoS Medicine, 3, 2011-2030. doi:10.1371/journal.pmed.0030442
Matínez, M., Paterna, C., López, J.-A. & Velandrino, A. (2010). Análisis psicométrico y dimensional de la Escala de Normas de Rol Masculino en población española. Male Norms Role Scale (MRNS). Estudios de psicología: Studies in Psychology, 31(2), 159-172. doi:/10.1174/021093910804952287
Matud, M. & Aguilera, L. (2009). Roles sexuales y salud mental en una muestra de la población general española. Salud Mental; 32, 53-58. Retrieved from http://www.redalyc.org/articulo.oa?id=58212260007
Mitjans, M. & Arias, B. (2012). La genética de la depresión: ¿qué información aportan las nuevas aproximaciones metodológicas? Actas Españolas de Psiquiatría, 40(2), 70-83. Retrieved from https://www.actaspsiquiatria.es/repositorio/14/76/ESP/14-76-ESP-70-83-680417.pdf
Moral de la Rubia, J. (2005). La Alexitimia en relación con el Sexo y el Rol de Género. Revista Internacional de Ciencias Sociales y Humanidades SOCIOTAM, 25(1), 147-166. Retrieved from http://www.redalyc.org/pdf/654/65415106.pdf
Moral de la Rubia, J. & Ramos-Basurto, S. (2015). Alexitimia como predictor directo y mediado por la depresión en la violencia. Revista Costarricense de Psicología, 34(1), 15-40. Retrieved from http://www.scielo.sa.cr/pdf/rcp/v34n1/art02v34n1.pdf
Moral de la Rubia, J. & Retamales Rojas, R. (2014). Estudio de validación de la escala de alexitimia de toronto (TAS-20) en muestra española. Psiquiatría, 1. Retrieved from https://psiquiatria.com/sin-categoria/estudio-de-validacion-de-la-escala-de-alexitimia-de-toronto-tas-20-en-muestra-espanola/
Moya Morales, M. (1984). Los Roles Sexuales. Gazeta de Antropología, 3, 21-28. Retrieved from https://www.ugr.es/~pwlac/G03_08Miguel_Moya_Morales.html
Muñiz, J. & Fernández-Hermida, J. R. (2010). La opinión de los psicólogos españoles sobre el uso de los test. Papeles del Psicólogo, 31(1), 108-121. Retrieved from http://www.papelesdelpsicologo.es/pdf/1801.pdf
Nekouei, Z. K., Doost, H. N., Yousefy, A., Manshaee, G. & Sadeghei, M. (2014). The relationship of Alexithymia with anxiety-depression-stress, quality of life, and social support in Coronary Heart Disease (A psychological model). Journal of Education and Health Promotion, 68(3), Retrieved from https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4113983
OMS (2018). Depresión. Retrieved from http://www.who.int/es/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/depression
Páez, D., Martínez-Sánchez, F., Velasco, C., Mayordomo, S., Fernández, I. & Blanco, A. (1999). Validez psicométrica de la Escala de Alexitimia de Toronto (TAS-20): un estudio transcultural. Boletín de Psicología, 63, 55-76. Retrieved from https://www.ehu.eus/documents/1463215/1504264/Paezetal99em2.pdf
Rice, S. M., Fallon, B. J., Aucote, H. M., & Möller-Leimkühler, A. M. (2013). Development and preliminary validation of the male depression risk scale: Furthering the assessment of depression in men. Journal of Affective Disorders, 151(3), 950-958. doi:10.1016/j.jad.2013.08.013
Rosado Millán, M., Gracía García, F., Alfeo Álvarez, J. & Rodríguez Rosado, J. (2015). El Suicidio Masculino: Una Cuestión de Género. Prisma Social, 13, 433-492. Retrieved from https://www.researchgate.net/publication/273120744/download
Sanz, J., Perdigón, A. L. & Vázquez, C. (2003). Adaptación española del Inventario para la Depresión de Beck-II (BDI-II): 2. Propiedades psicométricas en población general. Clínica y Salud, 14(3), 249-280. Retrieved from http://www.redalyc.org/articulo.oa?id=180617972001
Schuch, J. J., Roest, A. M., Nolen, W. A., Pennix, B. W. & De Jonge, P. (2014). Gender differences in major depressive disorder: Results from the Netherlands study of depression and anxiety. Journal of Affective Disorders, 156, 156-163. doi:10.1016/j.jad.2013.12.011.
Tartaglini, M. F., Dillon, C., Hermida, P. D., Feldberg, C., Somale, V. & Stefani, D. (2017). prevalence of Geriatric Depression and Alexithymia and their association with sociodemographic characteristics in a sample of elderly persons living in Buenos Aires, Argentina. Revista Brasileira de Geriatria e Gerontologia, 20(4), 516-524. doi:10.1590/1981-22562017020.160126
Taylor, G. J., Parker, J. D. & James, C. B. (1990). A preliminary investigation of alexithymia in men with psychoactive substance dependence. Am J Psychiatry, 147-149. doi:10.1176/ajp.147.9.1228
Thomsom, E. H. & Pleck, J. H. (1986). The structure of males role norms. American Behavioral Scientist, 29, 531-593. doi:10.1177/000276486029005003
Tondo, L. (2014). Brief History of Suicide in Western Cultures. En S. H. Koslow, P. Ruiz & C. B. Nemeroff, A Concise Guide to Understanding Suicide: Epidemiology, Pathophysiology and Prevention (págs. 3-12). Cambridge: Cambridge University.
Vázquez Machado, A. (2013). Depresión. Diferencias de género. Multimed, 17(3), 193-217. Retrieved from http://www.revmultimed.sld.cu/index.php/mtm/article/view/319/1315
Vindel, A. C., Salguero, J. M., Wood, C. M., Dongil, E. & Latorre, J. M. (2012). La Depresión en Atención Primaria: Prevalencia, Diagnóstico y Tratamiento. Papeles del Psicólogo, 33(1), 2-11. Retrieved from http://www.redalyc.org/articulo.oa?id=77823404001
Williams, J., Stephenson, D. & Keating, F. (2014). A Tapestry of Oppression. The British Psychological Society, 27(6), 406-409. Retrieved from https://thepsychologist.bps.org.uk/volume-27/edition-6/tapestry-oppression
Wittchen, H. U., Jacobi, F., Rehm, J., Gustavsson, A., Svensson, M., Jönsson, B. & Steinhausen, H. -C. (2011). The size and burden of mental disorders and other disorders of the brain in Europpe 2010. European Neuropsychopharmacology, 21, 655-679. doi:10.1016/j.euroneuro.2011.07.018
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