Received: 23/04/24 Reviewed: 10/07/24 Accepted: 12/07/24

Introduction

Didactic strategies are learning techniques that integrate resources in accordance with the objectives and contents of a study plan or of a teaching-learning process in the academic-professional training of students. They should be designed in such a way as to stimulate students to observe, analyze, and in particular to develop the communicative dimensions through different speech acts. In this order, for a teaching-learning process to achieve its purpose, it is convenient that the teaching strategies are continuously updated, attending to the demands and needs of the students and the educational system.

Didactic strategies favor the teaching-learning processes according to González (2021) since they contribute to the development of the different dimensions of communicative competence.

In relation to this topic and the role of the teacher in the teaching-learning process, Días (2008) cited by Chacín (2015) states that "the role of the teacher during the didactic act is basically as a provider of strategies, but various conceptions have been described on how teaching should be carried out and consequently related to learning prescriptions".

The approach to didactic strategies in this article is oriented in two directions, on the one hand, teaching strategies, as procedures applied by teachers to favor student learning, which entails significantly relating students as learning subjects with the object of knowledge. On the other hand, there are the learning strategies, understood as those mental procedures applied by the student to learn and process information.

In relation to the observable symptoms within this topic, it can be seen that schools and higher education centers do not teach how to think or speak correctly, which generates a vacuum of theoretical and practical knowledge regarding communicative competence because the main teaching agents of this discipline lack the mastery of this competence. In this order Munita (2017) states that "the vacuum of school knowledge in which the didactics of literature found itself took various directions whose approaches have been present in one way or another (and to this day) in our schools. (P. 384)

Another problem that can be observed in the field of didactic strategies is related to the gaps in students' learning processes and the lack of scientific studies in this area. Martos Núñez (1988) argues that the scope of studies on language didactics is still limited, stating that, despite the philological studies published in the last ten years on this subject, there are still gaps regarding how "the student understands/memorizes/processes/analyzes texts, as evidenced by the fact that only a few recent studies by authors such as Van Dijk and Kintsch are really providing knowledge on these aspects" (Pg. 143)

As for didactic strategies, this is still a university problem specifically in the Dominican Republic, where the fieldwork for this article was carried out. In this environment and in most Latin American countries, many of the key teaching agents do not apply strategies aimed at achieving greater mastery of communicative competence in order to achieve better results in university graduates. 

In this context, it is evident that many university graduates lack the necessary skills to perform as professionals. This gap becomes more evident specifically in teaching strategies and even more so in learning strategies, where the student is the main agent in the construction of knowledge.

The strategies used by students in the learning process should be closely related to the teaching strategies applied by teachers. Through didactic strategies, the teacher facilitates the learning process in students, being the nature of the teaching process essentially communicative.

In its essence, this article is based on research carried out with students of the Spanish language and literature degree program at the Pontificia Universidad Católica Madre y Maestra, PUCMM, in the Dominican Republic.

Strategy concept

As a starting point, this topic is approached from a double perspective, from the concept of strategy and from the concept of didactics.

The term strategy was not originally applied to the field of didactics. Sosa Neira (2018) argues that the concept of strategy was born in military camps, and was understood as the art of leading within those camps. Etymologically, the word strategy derives from two Greek words: stratos, which refers to the army, and agein, which means guide. Then the Latin word strategos referred to the word strategy, proper to the military field, being the strategist the person who led an army in warlike contests.

In this sense, Guerrero (2022) states that "the term strategy is used by different disciplines to explain and support the practical or instrumental leverage of activities and processes that occur within these and de facto or legal organizations, conceptual groups or working groups" (P. 29)

In this same order Sosa Neira (2018) exposes that "regardless of the field, strategy can be considered as the competence that people have to direct a matter with the aim of achieving a goal" (p. 25).

Concept of didactics

In relation to the approach to didactics, we must start from the concept, which is defined as a theoretical-practical discipline that should promote the systematization of pedagogical practice, for its meaning, interpretation, improvement and transformation. This should guide the contextualized reflection of the interactive processes of teaching and learning, both at the intrapersonal and interpersonal levels.

Didactics, in the scientific field, is a somewhat new discipline, but research and studies on learning, teaching, human language, literature and communication, can be found since classical antiquity, for example, different topics related to the theories of language, teaching and learning were already raised by the Sophists and the first philosophers of Greek antiquity between the sixth and third centuries BC. In this sense, the subject was addressed in the Western tradition and specifically by the Stagirite Aristotle (384-322 BC) in his treatise on interpretation, in which he developed the concept of "linguistic universals" 

Álvarez Méndez (1998) cited by Hernández García (2000) states that, in the case of didactics, it is necessary to build the indispensable theoretical principles that contribute to curricular processes, in matters related to objectives, contents, methods, means and evaluation of teaching and learning.

Didactics has specialized in different fields of study, so in a scientific context it is still in the process of definition. 

For Carvajal Cornejo (2020) it is the pedagogical process through which the short-, medium-, and long-term actions of the didactic units during an academic period are anticipated, organized and planned.

According to Aragón Plaza, (n.d.) "philological studies and pedagogical studies have a long university tradition; however, the same is not true for special didactics, where there is no general agreement on points such as the teaching of grammar or the role of the history of literature" (p. 9)

According to Colomer (1996), didactics as an area of reflection is a recent field of study that has developed in recent decades, especially since the end of the 1960s. Thus, it can be concluded that the attention of language didactics shifted to a large extent towards issues such as oral language, the mastery of expression, image reading, etc.

Magdalena (2018) argues that didactics must have its own field of knowledge, knowing that its scientific sources are in the philological disciplines and in general didactics.

In relation to the didactics of language and literature and from an epistemological perspective, it favors the construction of critical and analytical thinking in the academic training of students, particularly in the competence in linguistic communication. From the 1970s on, didactics began to occupy a less relevant place in the teaching of language and literature, giving primacy, according to Colomer (1996), to the teaching of other contents as sub-competences.

According to Munita and Margallo (2019) didactics is a discipline that "have been constituted as a disciplinary field during the last 50 years". Therefore, it is a fairly recent field of study and its origins are marked by "two determining factors in its implementation in Spanish-speaking countries: on the one hand, the epistemological debate that played an essential role in the awareness of the need to renew the teaching of literature; and, on the other hand, the attribution of social functions to literary reading, which has marked the way of approaching the discipline in Spanish-speaking countries". (p. 3)

Álvarez Méndez (1998) cited by Hernández García (2000) states that, in the case of didactics, it is necessary to build the indispensable theoretical principles that contribute to curricular processes, in matters related to objectives, contents, methods, means and evaluation of teaching and learning. From an epistemological conception, the configuration of didactics according to Munita and Margallo (2019) as a "specific field of study and research in the nineties of the last century is closely linked to the defense of a new paradigm of literary education". (p. 5) 

The epistemological character of didactics can be established within the paradigm of literary education, according to Munita and Margallo (2019) who argue that "once the paradigm around which the didactics of literature is articulated was established, different lines of research began to emerge that advanced knowledge about didactic performance". (p. 7)

In the same vein, Munita and Margallo (2019) state that "these lines of epistemological reflection converge in the definition of a paradigm of literary education that is built from the criticism of the historicist model and the one based on the commentary of texts as an end in itself". (p. 5)

Magdalena (2018) in his didactics of literature makes a punctual reference on this thematic, when he states:

With the didactics of the text we also act as promoters of mental development, of their abstract understanding, and their capacity to empathize and socialize, their instruction should promote oral and written comprehension, analytical and synthetic thinking, oral and written expression, creativity (divergent thinking) and intellectual work techniques. Literature enhances communicative competence, helps to structure our minds and refines our expression while awakening attitudes, ideals and values (p. 23)

Eloy Martos Núñez (1988) in Métodos y Diseños de investigación en didáctica de la literatura, a publication of the Centro de Investigación y Documentación Educativa, CIDE, of the Ministry of Education and Science of Madrid, exposes the methodological and scientific foundations of the didactics of literature. 

Martos Núñez (1988), in addressing the subject in his work, states that there is a research gap in this field, stating that the purpose of this work is "to describe the general framework in which research on the didactics of literature can be developed, a field in which -although there is a proliferation of experiences and proposals for innovation- there is a certain vacuum in the study of methodology and research techniques (P. 6)

Teaching strategies

Didactic strategies are guides of conscious and intentional actions carried out by the teacher or lecturer in the achievement of teaching or learning objectives, that is, actions that are carried out to achieve an academic purpose. For some scholars of the subject such as Valido, Enebral and José (2017) cited by Sosa Neira (2018) "strategies require delimiting problems, proposing objectives to be achieved, programming resources and planning actions that provide an answer to the problem that needs to be solved" (Page. 25).

Other authors approach this subject from different areas and contexts of knowledge. For example, Mayer, (1984); Shuelt (1988); West, Farmer and Wolff, (1991) cited by Suni Surco and Vásquez Suárez (2018) state that teaching strategies "are procedures that the teaching agent uses in a reflexive and flexible way to promote the achievement of meaningful learning in students" (Pág. 28)

It is evident that in many contexts didactic strategies are still a problem in the teaching-learning processes, since many teachers do not apply teaching strategies that promote better results in students.

The design and application of didactic strategies focused on learning activities, methods and techniques, and the evaluation instruments and criteria, must be oriented to the achievement of learning achievements.

Differences between the concepts of strategy, technique and method

In this research work it is necessary to differentiate the concepts of strategy, technique and method within the teaching-learning processes. There are obvious differences between these three terms in relation to didactics. As has already been explained, strategies are guides of conscious and intentional actions carried out by the teacher or the teacher in the achievement of teaching or learning objectives, that is, actions that are carried out to achieve a certain end. The following are examples of teaching strategies: problem-based learning, collaborative learning, independent learning, project-based learning, workshops.

Techniques in the field of didactics are concrete activities performed by the student to obtain the necessary knowledge in an academic process, such as: the question technique, guided discussion, debate, underlining, schematizing, dramatization, brainstorming, exposition, files, time line, etc.

Strategies and techniques involve differences in their nature and application. In this order Javaloyes (2016) states that "for some authors (Beltrán, 1996; Román, 1993; Bernard, 2002) there is a hierarchical difference, strategies are composed of different techniques, observable and evaluable. Strategies would be a set of structured and orderly techniques in view of achieving an end. Strategies serve cognitive processes and techniques serve strategies" (p. 13).

Similarly, Jovaloyes (2016) citing Mayer (2010) argues that the difference is one of nature. Strategies are a type of knowledge (strategic knowledge), and he defines them as a method or a "general orientation for learning or remembering or solving problems" that includes the learner's monitoring of progress, while techniques would be procedural learning (steps to be applied in a specific situation)" (p. 14).

Methods are processes, steps or stages that are followed to achieve a certain end in the field of didactics. Unlike the methods proper to the field of research methodology where we can mention: inductive, deductive, comparative or contrastive, statistical, etc. methods.

In this order it can be concluded that strategies include in their procedures methods and techniques for the achievement of their goals, methods lead step by step the knowledge and are applied through techniques; on the other hand, techniques are the concrete ways of applying the methods based on the available resources.

Teaching strategies and learning strategies

The approach to strategies in the teaching-learning processes can be approached from a double dimension: the teaching strategies applied by the teacher in the educational performance, and the learning strategies, which are executed by the student to make his knowledge or self-learning viable. In this sense, it is important to differentiate the learning strategies of students from the teaching strategies applied by teachers.

In this order, Casimiro and Carhuavilca (2010) state that "teaching strategies are the different possible procedures to promote meaningful learning (new learning for our students). Strategies are going to be given according to the reality of the student." (p. 80)

However, as Casimiro and Carhuavila state, Gonzalez (2021) states, "the absence of strategies in both students and teachers for the writing process and the lack of motivation to carry out textual composition exercises, which translates into a lack of mastery when it comes to presenting a topic" (P. 7)

The learning strategies applied by students should be in close consonance with the teaching strategies applied by teachers, which favors the creation of students' prior knowledge in their teaching-learning process and which will allow them to improve their constructivist integration with the information they receive; however, the use of teaching strategies by teachers will depend on the pedagogical practices and particularly on the learning strategies applied by students.

The teaching strategies that teachers apply have an impact on the cognitive processes that students carry out. Likewise, the activities that they raise favor or hinder the achievement of the proposed objectives, which is why every strategy must be used after having been previously planned, and must be controlled during the process and finally evaluated the results.

According to Curvelo (2016) teaching strategies refer to "the use of tools, techniques or tactics and in some cases use their ingenuity, of a teacher, that allow him to transmit knowledge to his students, and in turn that these students receive it in an integral way, attending to the learning objectives, regardless of the area or level where this process is being carried out" (p. 33)

On the other hand, according to Díaz and Hernández (2010), learning strategies are those procedures (set of steps or skills) and instruments that students use to learn and solve problems.

Another author who refers to this topic is Díaz Hernández (2010) when he states that "a learning strategy is a procedure (set of steps or skills) and at the same time a psychological instrument that a student acquires and uses intentionally as a flexible resource to learn significantly and to solve problems and academic demands. (p. 180).

Similarly, Curvelo (2016) states that in "in daily practice the teacher must make use of tools that facilitate interaction in the facilitation and construction of knowledge of students, as part of the teaching and learning process carried out in the classroom" (p. 33)

Díaz and Hernández (2010) argue that these strategies are classified according to the action and/or activation desired for students: 

a) Promote the use of prior knowledge, and generate appropriate expectations.

b) To improve the constructive integration between previous knowledge and the new information to be learned.

c) Discursive and teaching strategies. 

d) To help organize the information. 

e) To promote situated teaching. 

f) Strategies and design of academic texts.

Method

This article is based on a field study carried out with students of the degree in Spanish language and literature oriented to secondary education at the Pontificia Universidad Católica Madre y Maestra, PUCMM, in the Dominican Republic, 2022 in relation to didactic strategies. For the survey applied to the students, a probabilistic sample was taken under the modality of convenience sample composed of fifty-five (55) students, to whom an instrument was applied with the objective of verifying the incidence of the strategies of language and literary didactics in communicative competence.

Regarding the methodological aspects of this article, a non-experimental transectional design was used, since the data were collected in context at a single moment and at a single time, under an exploratory and descriptive type of study, with a mostly qualitative approach. 

In terms of methods, a mixed approach was used in the processes of collecting, analyzing and linking quantitative and qualitative data. In this sense, the inductive method was applied; starting from the general observation of the different phenomena studied to reach particular conclusions. In this sense, various expository practices related to the topics under study were analyzed in order to reach specific conclusions. 

For the presentation of the results, only some of the questions of the questionnaire were taken, of those that are closely related to the object of this article, where the results of the data and their respective analyses can be appreciated.

Throughout the article, four well-differentiated phases can be seen throughout the article, four distinct phases can be seen, according to the postulates of Icart, Fuentlsaz and Pulpón (2006):  planning and collection of information, research development and methodology, presentation of results and analysis, and conclusions. In the planning phase, the subject and then the object of the study were identified. In the second phase, data was collected through an exhaustive search for information and the application of research techniques in order to proceed with the third phase, which was the development of the research and the presentation of the results of the field work that was applied to the students. Finally, they presented their conclusions.

Results

Figure 1

Strategies applied by teachers

Note. Source: Survey applied to students of the degree program in Spanish language and literature, Pontificia Universidad Católica Madre y Maestra, PUCMM. 2022

This question in the questionnaire was formulated with the objective of verifying that the strategies applied by teachers in Spanish language and literature favor the achievement of communicative competence in students. According to the graph, the highest percentages of respondents expressed that they strongly agree and agree. Thirty responded very much in agreement for 54.5 %. Twenty-two (22) selected in agreement for 40%. Four (4) said neither agree nor disagree for 4.5% and one said disagree for 1%

As can be seen, there is no significant discrepancy in the perception of the respondents, since the highest percentage of students maintain that the strategies applied by teachers favor communicative competence, while a very small population expressed disagreement.

Figure 2

Different types of strategies known to students

Note. Source: Survey applied to students of the degree program in Spanish language and literature, Pontificia Universidad Católica Madre y Maestra, PUCMM. 2022

The Pontificia Universidad Católica Madre y Maestra in its study plan for the degree in Spanish language and literature contemplates a set of strategies to be applied in the different subjects. In relation to the knowledge that students have about these strategies, 18 out of 55 students responded that they strongly agree that they know these strategies, for 33%. In the same order 27 students responded agree for 49 %. 9 said neither agree nor disagree for 16%, while one said disagree for 2%

Figure 4.4 shows the students' level of knowledge of the different strategies proposed in the curriculum of the Spanish language and literature program at the PUCMM.

Figure 3

Learning strategies applied by students

Note. Source: Survey applied to students of the degree program in Spanish language and literature, Pontificia Universidad Católica Madre y Maestra, PUCMM. 2022

Another variable of great importance in this study is to know to what extent students apply these didactic strategies for the achievement of learning. In this order the students surveyed were asked if they apply the different learning strategies within the didactics of language and literature for the achievement of communicative competence, according to the data obtained it can be seen that 15 said they strongly agreed, for 27%. 33 said they agreed for 60%. 4 said neither agree nor disagree for 7% and 3 said disagree for 5% of the surveyed population. It is worth noting that the highest percentage, 33 out of 55 students surveyed, equivalent to 60% of the population, only expressed agreement with the application of the strategies proposed in the study plan, compared to 27% who expressed strong agreement.

Figure 4

Impact of didactic strategies on text comprehension and production

Note. Source: Survey applied to students of the degree program in Spanish language and literature, Pontificia Universidad Católica Madre y Maestra, PUCMM. 2022

One of the variables considered was whetherthe language and literature didactic strategies applied in the Spanish language and literature curriculum promote comprehension and production of texts in different communicative situations. 32 students said they strongly agreed for 58%. Likewise, 20 said they agreed, for 37%. While 3 said they neither agreed nor disagreed for 5%.

In the context of communicative competence, comprehension and textual production as dimensions of communicative competence play a very important role, but they depend to a great extent on the didactic strategies used in the different communication situations within the study plan. For the highest percentage of students, 58% apply strategies that favor comprehension and textual production.

Figure 5

Didactic strategies and the achievement of communicative dimensions

Note. Source: Survey applied to students of the degree program in Spanish language and literature, Pontificia Universidad Católica Madre y Maestra, PUCMM. 2022

In the same order of the previous question, textual comprehension, written production and oral expression are three of the most important dimensions within the communicative competence, in question number seven of the questionnaire they were asked how the strategies applied in the study plan favor these dimensions, 30 answered strongly agree for 55%, of the respondents 23 answered agree for 42%, while 2 answered neither agree nor disagree, for 3% of the population. Due to the relationship between the variables in this question and the previous one, the results maintain similar percentages.

Figure 6

Note. Source: Survey applied to students of the degree program in Spanish language and literature, Pontificia Universidad Católica Madre y Maestra, PUCMM. 2022

Respondents were given a list of the strategies contemplated in the curriculum to find out which one’s teachers apply most frequently in the subjects they teach. In this graph, three strategies stand out as the most applied by teachers: Metacognitive reading skills with 76.4%. Drafting with 76.4%. Text analysis and interpretation with 92.2% of respondents.

In a general sense, these were the results of the respondents according to each strategy applied by the teachers:         

Elaboration of pragmatic-enunciative inferences                     29 of 55    29 (52.7 %) 

Development of macro-structural inferences                            30 of 55     30 (54.5 %)

Elaboration of micro-structural inferences                                28 of 55     28 (50.9 %) 

Elaboration of superstructural inferences                                  19 of 55     19 (34.5 %)

Metacognitive reading                                                                      42 of 55     42 (76.4 %)

Writing planning                                                                                 30 of 55    30 (54.5%)   

Drafting                                                                                                  42 of 55     42 (76.4 %)

Revision of the deed                                                                           36 of 55     36 (65.5 %)

Analysis and interpretation of literary texts                                54 of 55    54 (98.2 %)

Reading for pleasure                                                                           22 of 55    22 (40 %)

Figure 7

Note. Source: Survey applied to students of the degree program in Spanish language and literature, Pontificia Universidad Católica Madre y Maestra, PUCMM. 2022

Similarly, respondents were given the same list with the strategies contemplated in the study plan and were asked about their perception of which of these strategies are the most conducive to the achievement of communicative competence.

In this graph, three strategies stand out as the ones that most favor the achievement of communicative competence: elaboration of pragmatic-enunciative inferences with 67% of the respondents. Metacognitive reading skills with 78%. Analysis of literary texts with 80%.

These are the results in a general context.

Elaboration of pragmatic-enunciative inferences                    37 of 55     37 (67.3 %)

Development of macro-structural inferences                            26 of 55     26 (47.3 %)

Elaboration of micro-structural inferences                                23 of 55     23 (41.8 %)

Elaboration of superstructural inferences                                  20 of 55     20 (36.4 %)

Metacognitive aspects of reading                                                 43 of 55     43 (78.2 %)

Planning writing                                                                                  33 of 55     33 (60 %)

Drafting                                                                                                  34 of 55    34 (61.8 %)

Review of the deed                                                                              33 of 55    33 (60 %)

Metacognitive aspects of writing                                                    30 of 55   30 (54.5 %)

Analysis and interpretation of literary texts                               44 of 55    44 (80 %)

Reading for pleasure                                                                          31 of 55    31 (56.4 %)

Discussion and conclusions

The didactic strategies used by teachers in their teaching work are of utmost importance in the teaching-learning processes of the students, so the students' perception of the incidence of these strategies is of utmost relevance for their professional training. In this sense, Guerrero Ruiz and López Valero (1993) argue that didactic strategies in teaching practices are extremely important as a defining activity of the teacher's final profile, in order to determine the theoretical-practical work method and to deepen in situ the state of the question.

Regarding the different learning strategies that students apply for the achievement of learning in item 5 of the instrument, 15 responded strongly agree, for 27%, while 33 said they agreed for 60%. 4 said neither agree nor disagree for 7% and 3 said disagree for 5% of the surveyed population. According to the graph it can be seen that the highest percentage says that they only agree with the use of strategies for the achievement of communicative competence. Monís, (2006) quoted by Sosa Neira (2018) states that didactic strategies "should motivate, provide information and guide students to achieve the proposed learning (p. 26)

Conclusions

The teaching-learning processes involve strategies that seek to make the student understand the different discursive genres, both oral and written, through the comprehension of the communicative intention of the text, strategies that promote in the student the comprehension of the topic of the text, the identification of key ideas and words, the construction of the global meaning and the capacity to summarize its content.

The findings reveal that the teaching strategies applied by the teachers favor the achievement of learning, which aims at making the subjects capable of producing speech acts, texts and discourses with different purposes.

In line with the field work it was possible to verify that the learning strategies applied by the students are closely in line with the teaching strategies applied by the teachers, which favors the creation of the students' previous knowledge in their teaching-learning process and which will allow them to improve their constructivist integration with the information they receive; however, the use of the teaching strategies by the teachers will depend on the pedagogical practices and in particular on the learning strategies applied by the students.

Reading and writing are two of the main strategies applied in the teaching-learning process. Reading is one of the most important strategies in a learning process and specifically reading for pleasure, which includes the promotion of procedures that lead students to plan their reading as well as to solve processing problems through actions such as: rereading, paraphrasing, continuing reading, formulating hypotheses, generating mental images, thinking in analogies, searching for information in other texts and asking other people.

Writing is another strategy that favors these processes, since it promotes the creation and organization of ideas, establishes the communicative intention of the text, facilitates the selection and justification of a topic, selection of the discursive genre and support, determination of the audience and register, selection of the source of information, search, selection and recording of the information necessary to structure the text.

In conclusion, in the practice of didactic processes there must be a close relationship between teaching strategies and learning strategies for the achievement of goals and purposes. According to Javaloyes (2016) quoting Ayala, Martínez and Yuste (2004) "learning strategies are, initially, teaching strategies: the control of the process corresponds to the teacher", later they are transferred to the student together with a greater responsibility over their own activity, becoming learning strategies, being these dynamic, as they are built in constant interaction with the teacher and peers. (p. 61)

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